MARINE CORPS WOMEN'S RESERVE
IN WORLD WAR II
By
Lieutenant Colonel Pat Meid, USMCR
Printed 1964
Revised 1968
Historical Branch, G-3 Division
Headquarters, U. S. Marine Corps
1968
DEPARTMENT OF THE NAVY
HEADQUARTERS UNITED STATES MARINE CORPS
WASHINGTON, D. C. 20380
PREFACE
This brief history of the Marine Corps Women's Reserve in World War II is
derived from official records and appropriate published and manuscript
sources.
It is reprinted for the information of those interested in the wartime
organization, training, activities, and record of service of women who served
as Marines from 1943 - 1946.
R. G. OWENS, JR.
Brigadier General, U. S. Marine Corps
Assistant Chief of Staff, G-3
Reviewed and approved: 14 June 1968
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Original On-Line
Page Page
Foreword
Preface 4
Introduction....................................................1 7
I. Formation and Early History of the Women's Reserve...........2 8
Preliminary Planning--Early Strength
Estimates and Quotas--Selection of the
Director
II. Public Announcement and Early Recruiting...................7 13
Public Announcement--Name vs. Nickname--
The Enlistment Process
III. Training of the Women Reservists..........................13 19
Officer Training--Recruit Training--
Clothing Instructions--Transfer to New
River--Troop Trains--"Hometown" Platoons--
Training at Camp Lejeune--Specialist Training--
Promotion from the Ranks--Reserve Officer Class
IV. The Uniform...............................................23 29
Official Issue--Those Dress Whites!--
Special Uniform Class and Uniform Distribution--
Uniform Board and Regulations
V. Jobs and Job Assignments..................................28 34
Job Classification--Promotion--The buildup--
Jobs in Aviation--"Appropriateness" of Jobs--
The Philosophy of Hard Work
VI. Administration and Policies.............................36 42
Cooperation with the Women's Services--
Policy about Assignment and Housing
Assistants for the Women's Reserve--
Policy about Women's Authority--Changing
Policy on Marriage--Discipline and Morale
VII. People in the Program...................................42 48
The Women's Reserve Band--Quantico's Drill
Team--Personalities in the WRs--Other WR
Interests and Activities--Decorations
Awarded Women Marines
Original On-Line
Page Page
VIII. Hawaii Duty..........................................48 54
Selection of Women for Overseas Duty--
--Advance Party--Staging Area and Arrival
IX. Demobilization.......................................53 59
Computation of Credits--Strength at End of
the War--Monthly Quota for Demobilization--
Separation Centers--Last Days of the Wartime
Reserve
X. Overview.............................................58 64
Civilian Background--Reaction to Military
Life--Personal Benefit--Educational Back-
ground--Regional Pattern of Enlistments--
Composition of Reserve by Age and Test Scores--
--Recruiting Results and Media Used--Overall
Distribution by Rank--"VIP" Statements about
Wartime Reserve
Notes..........................................................66 72
Appendix A. Jobs in which Women Marines Were
Assigned During World War II......................85 91
Appendix B. Composition of the Women's Reserve:
By Education......................................88 94
Appendix C. Composition of the Women's Reserve:
By State of Residence.............................89 95
Appendix D. Composition of Women's Reserve:
By Age............................................90 96
Appendix E. Composition of Women's Reserve:
By General Classification Test Scores.............91 97
Appendix F. Key Dates in the History of Women
Marines...........................................92 98
Appendix G. Biographies of Wartime Directors, Marine
Corps Women's Reserve.............................95 101
MARINE CORPS WOMEN'S RESERVE
IN WORLD WAR II
By
LtCol Pat Meid, USMCR
INTRODUCTION
"What! Women Marines! Quit your kidding."
That was the first reaction of a group of Marines newly-freed from a
prison camp in the Philippines in February 1945. Eagerly they sought news
from the combat correspondents about what had been going on in the Marine
Corps since their capture in the early days of the war. The released men
could hardly believe it. Women in the Marine Corps? What did they do? How
did they dress? What were they like? Were they pretty?
Women in military uniform were a novelty to much of the rest of the world
in the beginning of World War II, not only in this country, but in Canada and
England as well. In the United States, more than 265,000 women served in all
branches of the Army, Navy, Coast Guard, and Marines. The Marine Corps
Women's Reserve (MCWR) was established by law as a part of the Marine Corps
Reserve by the amendment of 30 July 1942 to the U.S. Naval Reserve Act of
1938. The mission of the MCWR was to provide women trained and qualified for
duty in the shore establishments of the Marine Corps, thereby releasing
additional male Marines for combat duty.
In February 1943, the month that the Women's Reserve was formed, American
forces wiped out the final enemy opposition on Guadalcanal. The bitter
fighting there made it readily apparent that far more Marines would be needed
in the combat zones for the grinding battles that would only slowly clear the
way to victory.
If the women caused innovations and creation of new traditions in the
Corps, the effect of the Corps on them was no less profound. It was found
that there are no differences between men and women in respect to their fierce
pride in the Marine Corps and that special "Once a Marine, always a Marine"
brand of loyalty. Years after the war, the story is told of a motorist on his
way into the Marine Base at Quantico, who stopped at the Iwo Jima statue and
picked up a little boy about nine years old. He glanced at the youngster
sideways as he drove along, noticing that the boy wore a Marine Corps emblem
on his cap.
1
"Is your father a Marine, son?" he asked conversationally.
"No sir," replied the boy. Then he added proudly, "But my mother
was."
This is the story of those World War II Women Marines--why they were
there, the varied jobs they did, and their contribution to the war effort.
I. Formation and Early History of the Women's Reserve
On 7 November 1942, just three days before the 167th birthday of the
Marine Corps, the Commandant signed a document that would bring about a great
change in the life of the Corps during the years ahead. He gave his official
approval to the formation of the Marine Corps Women's Reserve, a movement that
resulted in more than 20,000 women serving in this ruggedly male outfit during
the next three years and releasing urgently-needed male Marines for combat
duty. Marine Corps Headquarters quickly and quietly went about setting up the
policies and procedures needed to effect the innovation. Official
announcement, however, was not made to the American public until three months
later--on 13 February 1943. The Marine Corps had sought to avoid premature
announcement before plans were completely developed, as it was felt this would
not be in the best interests of the new Women's Reserve.
Actually, the Marine Corps was the last of the four services to organize
a women's reserve in World War II.<1> This was no happenstance. It was
generally well-known that the Commandant of the Marine Corps, Lieutenant
General Thomas Holcomb, had been against the formation of a Women's Reserve in
the Marine Corps at the time the Women's Army Auxiliary Corps (WAAC) and the
Navy's Women Accepted for Volunteer Emergency Service (WAVES) were first
organized. As he later commented, less than a year after the Women Marines
had come aboard: "Like most other Marines, when the matter first came up I
didn't believe women could serve any useful purpose in the Marine Corps...
Since then I've changed my mind."<2>
Strangely enough, there had been a precedent for women in the Marine
Corps. In World War I, a group of 305 intrepid young women had worn the
forest green uniform with its famous globe and anchor insignia and had held
private, corporal, and sergeant ratings. They had performed their clerical
jobs, mostly at Headquarters, with dispatch and loyalty and had served under
the traditional no-nonsense Marine Corps discipline which decreed that any
infractions on their part would result in their being "summarily
disenrolled."<3> They had even been instructed in the "simpler drill
movements...before nine o'clock on the ellipse in Potomac Park," under the
watchful eye of a Marine NCO, and had also participated in victory parades.<4>
2
Rightly, however, when the matter of a Women's Reserve was discussed as a
serious possibility in the Second World War, General Holcomb knew that
admission of Women Marines this time would be on a scale and magnitude
previously undreamed of. It would create hundreds of new questions and
problems, all of which had to be answered.
Preliminary Planning
The decision to admit women to the Marine Corps was made as a result of
studies prepared by the M-1 section of the Division of Plans and Policies at
Marine Corps Headquarters. Originally, the matter had been discussed months
earlier but, because of the Commandant's feeling, had been dropped. When it
became apparent that such a move would release large numbers of
urgently-needed combat personnel, the question was reopened and restudied.
On 5 October 1942, Plans and Policies recommended establishment of a
Women's Reserve and suggested to the Commandant that it be set up as a
separate section within the Division of Reserve.<5>
The Commandant concurred with the recommendation, and on 12 October wrote
the Secretary of the Navy that "in furtherance of the war effort, it was
believed that as many women as possible should be used in noncombatant
billets, thus releasing a greater number of the limited manpower available for
essential combat duty."<6> He cited Public Law 689, 77th Congress, approved
30 July 1942, which amended the Naval Reserve Act of 1938 by adding a section
titled "Women's Reserve" and provided that it should be part of the Naval
Reserve.
First endorsement of the Commandant's letter, on 26 October by the Judge
Advocate General's office, approved this legal authority and read: "The
creation of a Women's Reserve which shall be a branch of the United States
Marine Corps Reserve appears to be fully authorized by the law. The specific
proposals of the Commandant of the Marine Corps as contained in the basic
communication have been examined in this office and it is considered that they
legally be approved."<7>
The second endorsement on 30 October from the Commander in Chief, United
States Fleet and Chief of Naval Operations was similarly favorable.
"Forwarded, recommending approval," it read in time-honored official naval
language.<8>
Final authority for creation of the Women's Reserve was received from
Secretary of the Navy Frank Knox on 31 October and President Franklin D.
Roosevelt on 7 November. This authorized an initial strength of 500 officers
and 6,000
3
enlisted by 30 June 1943, with total strength by 30 June 1944 of 1,000
officers and 18,000 enlisted.<9>
Distribution of rank and grade was the same as that authorized for the
men of the Marine Corps. Based on the number of women to be enlisted, the
distribution in rank of officers was specified as: 1 major, 35 captains, 35
percent of the total number of commissioned officers to be in the grade of
first lieutenant, and the balance, to be second lieutenants.<10> The
determination of the highest rank to be held by a member of the Marine Corps
Women's Reserve was based on the language of Public Law 689, which provided
for one officer with the grade of lieutenant commander for the Women's Reserve
of the United States Naval Reserve, whose counterpart in the Marine Corps
would hold the rank of major.<11> Later amendments to the law advanced the
rank of the senior woman in each naval service to captain (Navy and Coast
Guard) - colonel (Marine Corps).
Early Strength Estimates and Quotas
The first definite step toward physically establishing the Women's
Reserve was taken 5 November, when the Commandant wrote the commanding
officers of all Marine posts and procurement districts. He announced that the
Marine Corps was "initiating steps to organize a Women's Reserve" and directed
all officers to survey the activities under their jurisdiction and report the
number of Women Reservists (WRs) who could be used to replace officers and men
in such categories as clerical, communications, transportation, mess and
commissary, mechanical, and so forth. He explained that "within the next year
the manpower shortage will be such that it will be incumbent on all concerned
with the national welfare to replace men by women in all possible
positions."<12>
From the figures submitted by posts and stations, projections were made
of the number of women who would require special training in such fields as
Paymaster, Quartermaster, and Communications, as well as estimates of those
WRs who could effectively use the skills they brought to the Marine Corps from
civilian life. Quotas were also established for recruiting of enlisted women
and officers and tentative dates selected for the beginning training
classes.<13>
Although the Marine Corps was authorized a strength of only 6,500 women
by 30 June 1943, this preliminary survey indicated that more than 4,000 were
needed at once. The number of WRs
4
originally requested at Marine Corps-stations were:
Quantico, Virginia 692
Cherry Point, North Carolina 688
Camp Lejeune, New River,
North Carolina 726
San Diego, California 650
Camp Elliott, California 981
Camp Pendleton, California 416
Parris Island, South Carolina 278
4,431 <14>
Selection of the Director
Considerable preliminary planning had to be done to facilitate successful
recruiting, training, administration, and uniforming of the new Women's
Reserve. But probably the most important task confronting the Division of
Reserve was selection of a director for the new reserve component. The
Commandant made no bones about the fact that the success of the new Women's
Reserve would depend largely on the caliber and capabilities of the woman
chosen for the post of Director, Marine Corps Women's Reserve. Accordingly,
in November he wrote Dean Virginia C. Gildersleeve, of Barnard College,
Columbia University, to enlist her help.
"It is my understanding that in the selection of the woman to head up the
WAVES, the Navy availed itself of the advice of the Advisory Educational
Council, of which you are chairman," he wrote. "If it is not too much of an
imposition, the Marine Corps would be glad if your council could undertake a
similar service for it." General Holcomb stressed the point that it was not
the intentions of the Marine Corps to dictate any method in the choice of
candidates--whether decided upon by subcommittee or other means. "We are only
interested in procuring the services of some woman who is qualified for a
commission as a Major in the Marine Corps and to assume the parallel position
to Miss McAfee [Lieutenant Commander Mildred McAfee, Director of the WAVES],"
he explained.<15>
Shortly thereafter, Dean Gildersleeve and her committee presented a
recommendation of 12 outstanding women, and the Marine Corps began making
discreet inquiries as to their capabilities. Personal interviews of the
various candidates were conducted by Colonel Littleton W. T. Waller, Jr.,
Director of Reserve, under whose office the new Women's Reserve was to be
placed for administrative purposes. Colonel Waller and his right-hand man,
Major C. Brewster Rhoads, toured the country to interview prospective
candidates personally. Their recommendations ultimately led to selection of
Mrs. Ruth Cheney Streeter, 47, of Morristown, New Jersey.
5
President of her class at Bryn Mawr College; the mother of four grown
children, including three service sons (two in the Navy, one in the Army); for
more than 20 years active in New Jersey health and welfare work; and a
spirited woman who only a year or so earlier had taken out both her private
and commercial pilot's licenses; Mrs. Streeter seemed to have the right
combination of personal characteristics and organizational abilities that
would be required of a Woman Marine Director.<16>
Prior to public announcement of the new Women's Reserve, Mrs. Streeter
was quietly commissioned a major, USMCWR, on 29 January 1943 and sworn in by
Secretary of the Navy Knox. She was not, however, the first woman to go on
active duty in the Women's Reserve in World War II. Earlier that month, Mrs.
Anne A. Lentz was sworn in as the first commissioned officer, with the rank of
captain. (A civilian clothing expert who had helped outfit the WAACs, she had
originally come to the Marine Corps Headquarters in December on a 30-day
assignment to design the uniform for the Marines and wound up by wearing one
herself.)<17>
In respect to procurement and training, existing facilities of the WAVES
were to be used as much as possible. This was spelled out in a joint letter
from the Chief of Naval Personnel and the Commandants of the Marine Corps and
the Coast Guard to the Secretary of the Navy. Since the Women's Reserve of
both the Marine Corps and Coast Guard were also part of the Naval
Establishment, it was officially recommended that their members be procured
through the Office of Naval Officer Procurement and be trained "insofar as it
is practical" in schools already established for members of the WAVES.<18>
In February 1943 there were six other women who, like Major Streeter and
Captain Lentz, had been directly commissioned from civilian life before actual
public announcement of the Women's Reserve. All were selected because their
abilities and experience fitted them for key Marine Corps billets which had to
be filled at once--such as recruiting and training. Commissioned without any
formal indoctrination, they went on duty immediately at Marine Corps
Headquarters with their new rank and in civilian clothes.
These early Women Marines were:
Women's Reserve representative for Public Relations--First Lieutenant E.
Louise Stewart;
Women's Reserve representative for Training--Captain Charlotte D. Gower;
Women's Reserve representative for Classification and Detail--Captain
Cornelia D. T. Williams;
6
Women's Reserve representative for West Coast Activities--Captain Lillian
O'Malley Daly;
Women's Reserve representative for Recruit Depot--Captain Katherine A.
Towle; and
Women's Reserve Assistant to the Director--Captain Helen C. O'Neill.<19>
II. Public Announcement and Recruiting
Although the last-organized of the four women's wartime services, three
important factors were in the Women Marines' favor from the start.
First: That the Marines freely shared their own name, a proud name that
had witnessed 168 years of tradition and esprit. Thus, they became the only
women's service which didn't have an alphabetical designation or semi-official
nickname.
Second: That the Women's Reserve was accepted as a full-fleged part of
the Marine Corps and was not an "auxiliary" service.
Third: That the men's distinctive forest green uniform was followed
closely, with requisite feminizing modifications for the Women Marines. This
like the name, made the women feel they were being accepted on an equal basis
in the Corps, rather than as an auxiliary, and they worked twice as hard to
make sure they rated being called "good Marines."
Colonel Waller, Director of Reserve, in a recommendation to the
Commandant, a month before announcement of the Women's Reserve was made to the
public, declared:
"Women Reservists of the U. S. Marine Corps will not be especially
designated as in the case of, "WAVES" or "SPARS,"' but will be called Marines.
It is proposed that they will be uniformed in the forest green of the Marine
Corps with suitable differences being made in the material and in the cut of
the uniform to conform to the convenience and smart appearance of women, but
sufficiently like the Marine Corps uniform to permit no possibility of doubt
as to the branch of service to which the Women Reservists are attached."<20>
7
Public Announcement
The first official announcement of the Women's Reserve was made on 13
February 1943, and the Navy procurement offices throughout the country which
were charged with the duty of enlistment suddenly found themselves swamped
with women who wanted to be Marines. In the nation's capital, more than 100
filed applications the first two days after enlistments opened and caused one
recruiting officer to complain that the overload of applicants was causing his
office staff to "get behind in their work."<21> Applicants ranged all the way
from Mrs. Otho L. Rogers, of Washington, D. C., and Mrs. Henry T. Elrod, of
Coronado, California, both widows of Marine majors recently killed in combat,
to schoolgirls, office workers, grandmothers, and college students.<22>
Enthusiasm ran so high that a number of women even tried to enlist on the
Saturday the initial announcement was made, even though enlistments were not
supposed to be officially open until the following Monday. The records show
that some of them succeeded. The distinction of being the first World War II
Woman Marine (other than the handful of officers direct-commissioned before
public announcement) went to Lucille E. McClarren, of Nemahcolin,
Pennsylvania, who enlisted in Washington, D. C. on 13 February.<23>
Eligibility requirements for both enlisted and officers were:
United States citizenship; not married to a Marine, either single or
married but with no children under 18; height - not less than 60 inches;
weight - not less than 95 pounds; good vision and teeth.<24>
For enlisted or "general service," as it was called, the age requirement
was from 20 to 35 inclusive, and a candidate was required to have at least two
years of high school.<25>
For officer candidates, requirements were originally the same as for
WAVES and SPARS: age from 20 to 49 inclusive; either a college graduate, or
with a combination of two years of college and two years of work
experience.<26>
From the very beginning, it was a problem for the Marine Corps to cope
adequately with the stream of volunteers. Through courtesy of the WAVES, the
Navy Department made a unique and generous offer: some of its own officers,
currently undergoing training, would transfer to the Marine Corps to help with
recruiting, if the Marine Corps so desired. The Marine Corps, sorely pressed
for personnel, was happy to reply "Yes!" A
8
number of WAVES volunteered, and a group of 19 was selected, since the Marine
Corps had 19 procurement offices throughout the country. These 19 ex-WAVES
were sworn in as new Marines and went on the job immediately to recruit Women
Marines. Ironically, they still wore their WAVE uniforms, as the first Marine
Corps uniforms were not yet available.<27>
Throughout those early hectic months there was, inevitable, much "trial
by error" and the type of resourceful improvisation that has always been the
hallmark of the Marine Corps. Some Marine officers, for example, in the large
cities, who were severely pressed for additional help in the mountain of
paperwork inherent in enlisting large numbers of women, wrote to Headquarters
requesting authority to enlist capable civilian women as Marines to work in
their own offices. The women would go on duty immediately to help out in the
critical overload of work, and would receive their actual indoctrination as
Women Marines later. These requests were granted in many cases.<28>
Minimum age for a prospective member in the Women's Reserve had been set
by Congress in its 1942 amendment to the Naval Reserve Law and remained
unchanged throughout the war. It was, nevertheless, a matter which aroused
considerable agitation on the part of younger women, and both the White House
and the Director received numerous letters on the subject. In one instance,
an articulate young lady, representing a group of nearly twenty 18- and
19-year-old girls from Springfield, Ohio, wrote a highly persuasive letter to
Major Streeter, asking the logic in a ruling which permitted 18-year-old boys
to defend their country, even at the supreme sacrifice, when the girls could
not. Another enterprising young woman from Avonmore, Pennsylvania, who
obviously was well-versed in her facts, pointed out that in the last war girls
18- and 19-years old were allowed to enlist in the Marines and girls not quite
18 could join with their parents' consent. "If girls 17 were allowed to enroll
in the last war," she asked Mrs. Roosevelt, "could it be possible for a girl
19 to enroll in the Marines today?"<29>
A number of parents also wrote to ask if their daughters could enlist,
even though not yet the required age of 20. One such request came from a
World War I holder of the Distinguished Service Cross. In January 1943, prior
to actual formation of the Women's Reserve, he wrote the Commandant:
"I know this is no time to reminisce, but I do want to bring this to your
attention. I am the Marine from 96th Company, Sixth Regiment, who was with
Lieutenant [Clifton B.] Cates and a few other Marines that captured
Bouresches, France, and I turned over the first German prisoner and machine
gun to you that our battalion captured on the night of 6 June 1918.
9
"I have a big request to ask....As I have no sons to give to the Marines,
I would be more than happy if you....would recommend my daughter to the newly-
formed Marines Women Reserve Corps. While I appreciate that her age may be a
little young, she will be 18 this June....I feel sure she could fit into your
program.... surely this is not too much for a D. S. C. ex-Marine to ask of
you.... "<30>
The minimum age limit of 20 years for women members of the Naval Reserve
had been established by law, however, and so it remained. Persons writing
such letters were thanked for their interest in the Marine Corps, with the
suggestion being made that the girl reapply later when she became the proper
age.
Name vs. Nickname
The public took great interest in every detail about the new organization
and freely submitted trick names for the new Women's Reserve even before the
time it was officially formed. Unsolicited suggestions came from Congressmen
and private citizen alike. Typical "names" included MARS, Femarines, even the
unwieldy Women's Leather-neck Aides.<31>
However, the firm decision had been made that the Women Reservists would
be called simply "Marines." As the Director of Reserve, Colonel Waller, wrote
to Representative Louis Ludlow of Indiana: "...these women will not be
auxiliary but members of the Marine Corps Reserve which is an integral part of
the Corps and as....they will be performing many duties of Marines it was felt
they should be so known."<32>
The Enlistment Process
Candidates both for officer and recruit (boot) training were enlisted by
naval procurement offices in each of the four major procurement districts into
which the country was divided. New enlistees were placed on "inactive duty"
while their applications and supporting papers were processed by Marine Corps
Headquarters and then notified of the training class, whether boot or officer,
to which they were assigned. The women were designated as either Class VI (a)
officer or Class VI (b) enlisted. (Previously established male categories of
the Reserve were: Class I - Fleet Marine Corps Reserve; Class II - Organized
Marine Corps Reserve; Class III - Volunteer Marine Corps Reserve; Class IV -
Limited Service Marine Corps Reserve; and Class V - Specialist Volunteer
Marine Corps Reserve.)<33>
10
A prospective applicant, regardless of classification, had to submit a
physical statement by her own physician; fill out and return the application
to the recruiting station; take an aptitude test and complete physical; and
have a personal interview with the Officer-in-Charge. He in turn submitted a
statement of opinion as to the woman's capabilities and value to the service.
Final decision on whether or not to accept a particular candidate was made by
Headquarters Marine Corps. In some cases, an otherwise well-qualified
candidate was permitted a waiver for a physical or educational requirement she
lacked.
The traditional selectivity of the Marine Corps was in evidence at once.
Indication of its high standards is seen in the fact that the Marine Corps
Reserve Reviewing Board at Headquarters rejected approximately 25 percent of
the applicants for officers candidates' class whose applications were
forwarded from the procurement offices.<34> Public response to recruiting was
eminently satisfactory. Summarizing the first month's progress of the new
women's service, Colonel Waller commented:
"The women of the country have responded in just the manner we expected
....Thousands of women have volunteered to serve in the Women's Reserve and
from them we have already selected more than 1,000 for the enlisted ranks and
over 100 as officers."<35>
This was a good record when it is remembered that the WR goal was only
6,000 enlisted and 500 officers by 1 July, the maximum number that could be
enrolled up to that time.
Some of the interest of the nation's women was undoubtedly stirred by the
nationwide trip which Major Streeter made during the first month of the
Women's Reserve. She visited 16 major cities from coast to coast, as well as
the Marine Corps posts where her women would shortly be serving. She spoke
before a number of large public gatherings, including women's clubs and
college assemblies, and everywhere found a "spontaneous enthusiasm among women
for the new women's service organization."<36> Indeed, so ambitious was her
schedule of speaking engagements that at one point her voice gave out!<37>
Returning to Washington on 26 March from the first of what would be many trips
to the field, she commented: "The privilege of swearing in many enlistees gave
me an opportunity to observe the young women joining our ranks. I found them
to be most sincere, intelligent, and attractive representatives of American
young womanhood."<38>
Enlistments in the Women's Reserve during its first eight weeks totaled
2,495. Of that number, 28 were on active duty; 211 were enrolled in officer
candidates' class; and the rest were either in recruit training or awaiting
orders to active duty. During this first two months of its existence,
11
nearly one-seventh of the total enlisted strength and more than one-quarter of
the future officers were enrolled.<39>
In at least one place the recruiting was going so well that it occasioned
this cautioning remark from the procurement officer-in-charge: "While it is
not properly a concern of this office, it is felt that the Division of Reserve
might well consider decreasing the overall publicity given to the women's
program since the number of applications far exceeds the authorized quotas. It
is considered to be bad public relations by this office when unavoidable
circumstances necessitate turning away many desirable and well-qualified
applicants who have been encouraged to believe that their enlistment could be
effected."<40>
Despite the problems inherent in such an undertaking, by July 1943
sufficient female personnel had been trained so that it was possible to
transfer all enlistment procedures from the naval procurement offices to
Marine recruiters, who from then on handled the enrollment of the women as
they had been doing right along in the case of the men. As always, physical
examinations were the responsibility of the Navy.<41>
By 1 November 1943, the number of officers and enlisted personnel sworn
into the service totaled more than 11,000--less than 1,000 short of the 12,000
member quota set for 1 January 1944. Of this number, approximately 8,500 had
been classified and were on duty. In February 1944, one short year after its
formation, the strength of the Women's Reserve totaled nearly 15,000. A year
earlier, the organization had consisted of four officers; now, it numbered
approximately 800 officers and 14,000 enlisted women, and was well within
sight of its final recruiting goal.<42>
Observed the Director in May 1944: "...it is anticipated that by 31 May
the Marine Corps Women's Reserve will have reached its total authorized
strength. Although our quota is much smaller than those of the WACs (Women's
Army Corps) or WAVES, the fact still remains that though we were the last of
the women's military services to be organized, we are the first to succeed in
enlisting all the women we can presently use. Furthermore, we reached our
goal in two and a half months less time than we expected. The original plan
called for recruiting to start on 1 January 1943 and proceed at the rate of
1,000 per month until 30 June 1944. Actually, we did not start until 15
February 1943 and reached our quota on 31 May 1944, thus accomplishing our
mission in 15 1/2 months instead of 18."<43>
12
III. Training of the Women Reservists
In addition to its assistance with recruiting, the Navy also offered the
use of its training facilities for both officers and enlisted personnel in the
early organizational stages of the Women's Reserve. This helped the Women
Marines get off to a good start. Had it been necessary for the Marine Corps
to train its own staff for its women's schools before they could begin to
operate, there would have been a delay of several months in putting the women
to work for the Marine Corps and releasing men for combat duty. Classes for
officers and enlisted women both began in March 1943, at Mount Holyoke College
and Hunter College, respectively.
Officer Training
On 13 March 1943, exactly a month after initial public announcement of
the Woman's Reserve, the first class of 71 officer candidates entered the U.
S. Naval Midshipmen's School (WR), Northampton, Massachusetts, to begin its
training with the WAVES. The U. S. Naval Midshipmen's School comprised the
facilities of both Smith College, at Northampton, and Mount Holyoke, in nearby
South Hadley. Marine candidates received their training primarily at the
latter.<44> Included in the class were representatives of a variety of fields
of civilian life--including educators, scientists, secretaries, and women from
other businesses and professions.<45>
Marine officer candidates followed the same course of instruction as the
WAVES for the first half of their training, approximately four weeks. This
included Naval Organization and Administration, Naval Personnel, Naval History
and Strategy, Naval Law and Justice, Ships and Aircraft. Instruction in the
second part, or advanced indoctrination, was separate from the WAVES. This
consisted of Marine Corps subjects given by Marine Corps instructors. The
curriculum included Marine Corps Administration and Courtesies; Map Reading;
Interior Guard; Safeguarding Military Information; and Physical Training. As
with all Marine recruits, throughout both phases of the entire course, the
women were schooled rigorously by male Marine drill instructors, who had been
transferred from the Parris Island Recruit Depot to Mount Holyoke for this
purpose.<46>
On 6 April, members of the first class received their silver OC pins,
which marked their promotion to officer cadet status. This was a
specially-created category, authorized by the Secretary of the Navy, to
correspond to the status and pay rating of their contemporaries in the WAVES.
Since Navy candidates went through their training as midshipmen, it was
13
felt desirable for members of the two groups to have equal standing.<47>
Successful candidates received their commissions on 4 May, a little over seven
weeks after they had entered. The second candidates' class began its training
on 10 April and the third class, in early May. Altogether a total of 214
Women Marines completed officer training at Mount Holyoke, with a new class
entering each month.<48>
Administratively, the Marine training unit had the comparable status of a
Marine detachment aboard ship. The women had their own commanding officer who
was responsible for discipline, as well as for coordinating instruction in
drill and academic subjects with that of the school. The Marine candidates
were organized into separate companies and were under the immediate command of
an officer of the regular Marine Corps, Major E. Hunter Hurst. But the WR
detachment itself was part of the WAVES school complement, under final
authority of the commanding officer of the Midshipmen's School.<49>
All officer candidates enlisted as privates. At the end of their
preliminary four-week training period, women considered not qualified for
appointment as cadets had the option of either being transferred to Hunter
College for completion of basic training, or of being ordered to their homes
and inactive status in the reserve district to wait ultimate discharge from
the Marine Corps. Cadets who, upon completion of their training, were not
recommended for commissioned rank, submitted their resignations to the
Commandant via official channels and were subsequently discharged. If they
wanted to reenlist as a private, they could do so, provided they were not over
age for enlistment.<50>
Recruit Training
Two weeks after the first officer class began its training, the first
class of 722 enlisted women entered Hunter College, The Bronx, New York or, as
it was officially known, the U. S. Naval Training School (WR). Due to the
size of the group, its members were ordered to arrive over a three-day period,
24-26 March, in three equal daily contingents.<51> The "boots" were billeted
in nearby apartment houses and began their instruction with the WAVES on 26
March.
The administrative set-up was similar to Mount Holyoke but vastly larger.
Although part of the host Navy organization, the Marine recruits were
organized into separate companies, each headed by a male Marine officer and
combined into a battalion, under command of an officer of the regular Marine
Corps, Major William W. Buchanan. The first class was divided into 21
platoons of approximately 35 women each.<52>
14
A senior woman officer, Captain Katharine A. Towle, was a member of Major
Buchanan's staff from the beginning. Other women officers were added to it
after the first officer candidates' class was commissioned. A group of 33
instructors, including 10 officers and 23 enlisted, comprised the major's
staff. They instructed the women in both Marine Corps and general subjects,
the curriculum being similar to that of Mount Holyoke. In addition, there
were 15 to 20 sharp-eyed drill instructors to supervise the close-order drill
of all the women in the training school, both WAVES and Marines.<53>
Included in the first group of enlisted women were many stenographers and
secretaries, telephone operators, two motor mechanics, laboratory technicians,
an acetylene welder, a commercial artist, a parachute maker, woodcraft
workers, and others representing a wide variety of occupations and civilian
skills.<54>
The first class was graduated 25 April 1943, in a little over four weeks'
time. Subsequent classes entered every two weeks, and numbered some 525
recruits each. Indoctrination lasted approximately four weeks, but individual
classes varied from three-and-a-half to five weeks because of the need to
coordinate schedules with the WAVES. Between 26 March and 10 July, six
recruit classes entered and a total of 3,280 women Marines were graduated.
Despite the intensity and fast pace of the training, attrition--about two
percent--was quite low.<55>
Clothing Instructions
Members of both the first candidates' class and recruit class went
through half their training in civilian clothes. Uniforms were issued in the
latter part of April, as soon as they became available in quantity. Detailed
instructions issued to prospective WRs before they left home for training had
spelled out clearly the clothes they should bring with them, including two
pair of comfortable dark brown, laced oxfords. "Experience has proven that
drilling tends to enlarge the feet," the mimeographed instructions stated
matter-of-factly. In addition to the list of necessary clothing, all trainees
were sharply warned not to leave home without orders; not to arrive before the
exact time and date stamped on their official papers; and not to forget their
ration cards.<56>
Transfer to New River
By the early summer of 1943, the Marine Corps had readied its own
schools. Although it was originally under the orders to use existing
facilities of the Navy insofar as was practical for procurement and training,
the size of the classes both at Hunter and Mount Holyoke dictated the need for
larger facilities.
15
In July 1943, the fifth month of the Women's Reserve, both the officer
candidates' class and recruit depot were transferred to Camp Lejeune, New
River, North Carolina. Together with the specialists' schools, which had been
in operation at New River since May, they comprised the Marine Corps Women's
Reserve Schools. Here, nearly 19,000 women took their training throughout the
remainder of the war.
The third class of officer candidates was commissioned at Mount Holyoke
on 29 June. The combined battalion of WAVES and Marines passed in review
before Major Streeter, Lieutenant Commander McAfee, Director of the WAVES, and
Brigadier General Keller E. Rockey, USMC, Director of the Division of Plans
and Policies at Headquarters. Commented Major Streeter: The candidates
presented an excellent battalion review conducted entirely by themselves
without any men officers on the field. They made a very good impression in all
ways and left Mount Holyoke with good feeling between themselves and the Navy
and the college."<57>
Possibly the satisfactory experience at Mount Holyoke was due partly to
another factor. Its president was an ex-Marine! As the Marine Corps later
wrote in a letter of appreciation to Dr. Roswell G. Hamm: "Your continual
willingness to assist in the formation of policies and to contribute to the
comfort of the Marine Corps personnel at Mount Holyoke were largely
responsible for the high morale and fine esprit de corps of our officer
candidates. Your experience as a former Marine made you keenly aware of the
vital importance of the work to be done by the Women's Reserve."<58>
Tuesday, 29 June, was also the day that members of the fourth class were
promoted to rank of cadet. On Thursday, approximately 70 members of the
training class and the staff departed in a troop movement to Camp Lejeune,
arriving two days later. Training was resumed on 5 July and the class
graduated on 7 August. The fifth class reported directly to Camp Lejeune on
15 July as did all candidates' classes thereafter.<59> Meanwhile, at Hunter
College, the current class of enlisted women completed its training in early
July. The tenth class reported directly to Camp Lejeune on 12 July and
graduated on 15 August. Thereafter, a class of approximately 550 women
entered every two weeks and graduated about five and a half weeks later, in
accordance with previously established schedules. Three classes were in
training simultaneously.<60>
The new location and consolidation of training was welcomed by all,
students and administrative staff alike. It enabled a far more thorough
Marine Corps indoctrination than had been possible before and permitted later
classes of enlisted women to receive detailed instructions in various
administrative procedures needed on their day-to-day jobs.
16
A highlight of all Women Marines' training, initiated after the move to
New River, were the field demonstrations in which the women witnessed actual
use of mortars, bazookas, flamethrowers, amphibian tractors, landing craft,
hand-to-hand combat, camouflage, even war dogs. Picked teams of male Marines
presented these special demonstrations in half-day sessions. "By showing the
women what the men faced whom they had released for combat, their pride in the
Corps was increased and they saw clearly their own part in it," the Director
of the Women's Reserve later observed.<62> Since no other women's military
service had such real-life battle demonstrations, it was understandable that
their members were somewhat envious of this aspect of the WR's training!<63>
Actually, the first tentative step toward what was later to become the
field demonstrations had occurred informally less than a month after training
began. A personal letter received by recently promoted Brigadier General
Waller from Major Hurst, Commanding Officer of the Marine Training Detachment
at the Midshipmen's School in South Hadley had stated, in part:
"In drawing these up [training schedules ordered by Marine Corps
Headquarters] I found myself wishing more and more that we could include some
weapons instructions, at least pistol, for our women....I have found that the
women come into the Marine Corps expecting to learn to shoot and I, of course,
would like to see them become the first women's reserve in the country to take
up the specialty of their men if Headquarters considers the idea at all
feasible. I wouldn't have had the nerve to suggest it if Mrs. Franklin D.
Roosevelt hadn't asked me on her visit last week how soon they were going to
learn to shoot. She expressed surprise at learning that the women of the U.
S. were not learning as much about weapons as the women of other
countries...."<64>
Weapons demonstrations took another big step forward in a memorandum
drafted 12 June 1943 by Major Streeter discussing the proposed, curricula for
the Marine Corps Women's Reserve Schools to open the following month in New
River. She noted that the indoctrination of both training classes of women
contained lectures on combat equipment, landing operations, tactics, parachute
troops, and amphibian tractors. If it is possible to arrange transportation
and schedules that would not interrupt the training of the men in these lines
of work, I believe it would be a definite inspiration to the Marine Corps
Women's Reserve to see them actually in training," she wrote.<65> The
Director's suggestion was approved, and the modification in the women's
training was considered to be highly advantageous by all concerned.
17
Troop Trains
Lessons in Marine Corps style efficiency and order were learned even
before new recruits arrived at Camp Lejeune. They were brought to New River
on all-Marine trains---all-Women-Marine trains. Numbering approximately 500
girls, the mass troop movement was directed by a woman lieutenant, with two
enlisted women as assistants. Commented one recruit: "We started right out
learning military procedure and discipline at the railroad station. The WRs
lined us up, bag and baggage, and marched us aboard the train."<66>
Once at Camp Lejeune, boots observed the strict rules governing male
recruits at the Parris Island and San Diego boot camps. Every minute of the
day was accounted for, and no liberty was granted during the six-week
indoctrination.<67> Training got underway the minute the women arrived.
Speedy assignment to billets in the neat red brick barracks in Area One, set
aside for the exclusive use of the women's schools, was followed by
orientation classes; issue of uniforms; close order drill, beginning the day
after arrival; and classification tests and interviews to assess a woman's
abilities, education, training, and business experience. Strict discipline
and tight schedules worked their invariable magic. Before long it seemed a
perfectly normal routine to get up at 0545, fall in formation at 0630, eat at
0645, attend classes from 0800 to 1130, march to lunch, and spend until 1600
daily in classes or drill.
Despite constant emphasis on discipline, proper military phraseology and
customs, even the best-intentioned WR sometimes made mistakes, often ingenuous
ones with a decidedly feminine twist. There's the story of the Woman Marine
who became flustered upon passing an officer on the street and got her
instructions mixed. Instead of saluting and saying, "By your leave, sir," she
saluted and said "Leave me by, sir."<68>
In another instance, a woman student platoon leader tried in vain to give
her marching troops the order of execution on the correct foot. With her
platoon marching along, she decided to compose herself for a minute to make
double sure. Suddenly, dead ahead of the column, a tree loomed up. Her
command rang out strong and clear: "Around the tree....MARCH!"<69>
"Hometown" Platoons
A month after the organization of the Women's Reserve, an officer in the
Southern Recruiting District had queried Headquarters: "...we are making plans
for the formation of a platoon of Women Marines to be sworn in jointly and
sent to training as a group. This has been done successfully with male
Marines in the past. If there is any objection to this, please wire
immediately."<70>
18
Not only was there no objection from Headquarters, but the idea was
picked up by other recruiting officials and cities. Although Atlanta appears
to have been the city where the idea was originally conceived for the hometown
platoons, it was the city of Philadelphia, birthplace of the Marine Corps back
in the days of the Revolution, that produced the first WR platoon to be sent
to camp as an entity. This occurred in early September 1943 and rated a
telegram of congratulations and "Welcome Aboard" from Major Streeter.<71>
The 168th observance of the Marine Corps birthday on 10 November was the
occasion for the swearing in en masse of both the first Pittsburgh platoon as
well as the Potomac Platoon of Women Marines of Washington, D. C. The latter
ceremony took place at the Library of Congress, prior to departure of the unit
for boot training at Camp Lejeune. Much local enthusiasm was created, and, as
a library official later wrote to a Marine officer: "In all my years of
association with the Library of Congress I have never seen the steps of the
main building put to more appropriate use than the swearing in of the First
Potomac Platoon of Women Marines."<72>
The recruiting of other "all neighbor" women's platoons was scheduled
which included: Albany, Buffalo (two), Northern New England, Pittsburgh (two),
Miami, Alabama, Fayette County, Pa., Johnstown, Pa., St. Paul, Green Bay,
Westmoreland County, Pa., Seattle, Houston, Southern New England, Central New
York, and Dallas. Members of the platoons were ordered to duty at one time,
went through their preliminary training as a unit, but upon completion of
their training were assigned to duty individually.<73>
Training at Camp Lejeune
The training program of all Women Marines was drawn up with the prime
objective of converting civilians into responsible military personnel in the
shortest time possible. As with generations of male Marines before them,
close-order drill proved to be the most effective single training factor.<74>
Through these basic military movements, the Women Marines learned not only the
value of teamwork, military precision and snap, instantaneous response to
command, and discipline and order, but also pride in outfit, pride in self,
and the intangibles of that traditional Marine esprit.
Upon completion of basic training, those women considered to have
sufficient skills to be of immediate value to the Marine Corps received their
orders and went on active duty at once. Other women, both officer and
enlisted, were assigned to specialist schools and still others were trained on
the job
19
as apprentices. Depending on their civilian background and skill, some took
over in supervisory positions. In any event, the aim was to get the women
assigned to suitable duty as rapidly as possible in accordance with the
current needs of the service.
Lieutenant Colonel Lucian C. Whitaker, USMCR, and, later Colonel John M.
Arthur, USMC, were the commanding Officers of the Camp Lejeune Women's Reserve
Schools which included the Recruit Depot, Candidates' Class, and Specialist
Schools Detachment. The platoons in training at New River averaged from 28 to
30 women, and a company, approximately 165.<75>
Of the 22,1999 women ordered to Recruit Depot (i.e., Hunter College and
Camp Lejeune), only 602 failed to complete the course for physical reasons or
inaptitude, an attrition rate of 2.7 percent. These individuals were
discharged either on grounds of unsuitability or by medical survey.<76>
Specialist Training
From the very beginning, advanced training was available. More than 100
members of the first class graduated 25 April from Hunter attended Navy and
Marine specialist schools. The early Navy courses were: Aviation Machinist
Mate at the Naval Training School, Memphis, Tennessee; Link Training
Instructor at the Naval Air Station, Atlanta, Georgia; and Aviation
Storekeeper at Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana. Early Marine
specialty schools included cooks and bakers, motor transport, quartermaster,
and non-commissioned officers. Members of the officer classes at Mount
Holyoke were also selected for further training, including instruction at the
Navy's communications school in South Hadley, Massachusetts.<77>
Before the war was over, some 30 specialist schools were open to the
Women Marines in fields as diverse as mechanics and personnel administration.
Nearly 9,000 women received such advanced training. The courses varied in
length from 4 to 22 weeks and were open to women who had finished "boot
training" and who sought and qualified for higher ratings in the specialized
fields.<78> As women proved their versatility on the job, the original
half-dozen or so specialist schools quickly expanded to capitalize on their
abilities. At the University of Wisconsin, for instance, one WR studying
radio communications actually picked up an SOS from a ship sinking somewhere
at sea.<79>
In addition to the early schools, other Marine Corps and Navy training
courses open to the women during the two and a half years of the war included:
first sergeant, paymaster, signal, parachute rigger, aerographer, clerical,
control tower
20
operator, aerial gunnery instructor, celestial navigation, motion picture
operators technician, aircraft instruments, radio operator, radio material,
radio material teletypewriter, post exchange, uniform shop, aviation
storekeeping, automotive mechanic, carburetor and ignition, aviation supply,
and photography. Many of these classes, such as those at the First Sergeant's
School in Philadelphia, contained old-time veteran Marines. Thus members of
the new Women's Reserve benefited both by personal association with these
highly competent (and sometimes highly critical) "Old Salts" and from
classroom discussions of their job experiences. Top-ranking students were
often awarded a higher rating than the majority of the class upon completion
of specialty training.<80>
Promotion from the Ranks
The first seven officer candidates' classes were made up of women who
enlisted in Class VI(a) directly from civilian life.<81> The applications of
these women were forwarded to Headquarters from the procurement district where
they had originally enlisted. In Washington, a four-member board reviewed all
applications for officer training and selected the best qualified, who were
subsequently ordered to duty.
Because there were many outstanding enlisted women who, officials
believed, should also have the opportunity for commissioned rank, this plan
was modified in July 1943. The Commandant felt that from then on there would
be sufficient Class V (b) Reservists who "as a result of education, past
experience and training can supply the demand and perform the duties as
officers. The plan of selecting commissioned personnel, in the main, from the
ranks will build up a high standard of morale, efficiency, and esprit de
corps." Thus, beginning with the eighth class, in October 1943, the
candidates' class was composed of both civilian and enlisted women, with the
majority in the latter group. To be eligible, a Marine had to be recommended
by her commanding officer. A board of seven members, including the Women's
Reserve Director, as well as both regular and reserve male officers, was
convened regularly to review and pass judgment on applications from enlisted
personnel.<82> This new plan, it should be pointed out, did not completely
close the door to civilian candidates. Women with specialized abilities
needed by the Marine Corps or those considered to have generally outstanding
leadership qualities were still accepted, but on a far more limited basis.
The first class of ex-enlisted Marines was graduated on 15 December 1943, and
thereafter the majority of new women officers had served in an enlisted
capacity before being commissioned.<83>
21
After the transfer to New River, all officer candidates were appointed to
the rank of private first class and remained as such during the entire course,
a move that brought the women's training more into line with that of male
Marines, since this system was being used in the men's OCS program at
Quantico. The cadet category had served its purpose and was dropped once the
Marines were training strictly on their own. Meritorious enlisted women who
held the ranks of corporal or sergeant temporarily reverted to PFC, and all
candidates wore PFC chevrons and OC pins on their uniform lapels and caps.
Although the outward appearance of equal rank prevailed, the higher-rated WRs
were still eligible to draw the pay of their actual rank. In the event an
enlisted woman did not complete the course, she resumed her regular rating.
If she so desired, she was eligible after six months to reapply for a new
candidates' class "without prejudice against her" because of her earlier
failure.<84> At the completion of training, successful candidates were
commissioned in the "appropriate" rank. The custom developed of awarding
first lieutenant commissions to a small proportion of top candidates and
second lieutenant rank to the rest. In several cases, unusually
well-qualified candidates were awarded the rank of captain immediately upon
completion of candidates' class. But this was no "snap" course; attrition
averaged over 30 percent.<85>
Reserve Officer Class
When officer ranks were opened to enlisted personnel in late 1943, it
became apparent that even an outstanding NCO did not always make an immediate
good personal adjustment to officer status. Then, too, it seemed advisable
that these ex-enlisted women should become somewhat more accustomed to their
gold bars while still at school and before going out to their first officer
jobs.
Accordingly, the first reserve officer class was established after
commissioning of the eighth officer candidates' class, in December.
Thereafter, the reserve office class was composed of successful graduates of
officers' class as well as graduates of the earlier classes who had been on
active duty and for whom it served as a refresher course. Principal emphasis
was on typical personnel problems. Discussions included realistic problems in
administration, recreation, messing, rehabilitation, and the psychology of
behavior patterns that a woman officer might have to deal with on the job.
The officer training program was thus lengthened to a full three months, with
eight weeks of fundamental indoctrination plus the four-week training offered
by the reserve officer class.<86>
22
IV. The Uniform
Design of the uniform for members of the Woman's Reserve had high
priority, and the basic ensemble of the uniform was designed prior to actual
formation of the Women's Reserve. In mid-December 1942, a memorandum from the
Commandant to the Assistant Secretary of the Navy officially requested that
Mrs. Anne Adams Lentz, then an employee of the War Department, be assigned to
duty at Headquarters "for a period of approximately 30 days."<87> Mrs. Lentz
had been employed by the school uniform section of a large New York department
store and for eight months had helped the WAACs in the design of their
uniform. She came on duty immediately, early in January, and, following
consultation with the Depot Quartermaster in Philadelphia, was detailed to New
York City to oversee the construction of model uniforms for the Women's
Reserve by the Women's Garment Manufacturers of New York.<88> The original
concept for design of the uniform was clearly spelled out. The men wanted the
women to be dressed in the traditional Marine forest green and to look as much
as possible like Marines. Later that month, her original 30-day duty about to
expire, Mrs. Lentz decided to stay on. She was sworn in as a WR captain on 18
January 1943, the oath of office being administered by her husband, Brigadier
General John M. Lentz, who was attached to Army Ground Forces Headquarters in
Washington, D. C.<89>
After Captain Lentz conferred with clothing designers in New York and
Marine Corps Headquarters, as well as the supply division in Philadelphia, a
general type of uniform was adopted based on tradition, theory, and drawings.
Samples were made up of various uniform designs, these were shown to the
Commandant and others at Headquarters, and both the winter and summer styles
here adopted.<90>
Once the details of design and construction were officially approved, the
uniforms were manufactured for the Marine Corps and sold by civilian suppliers
under the same general setup as prevailed with the WAVES. Although newspaper
clippings showed the new uniform the week after public announcement, and a few
key women officers who were constantly in the public eye were issued uniforms
almost at once, the inexorable law of supply and demand made it impossible to
provide uniforms in quantity until April. Nearly all the early USMCWR
officers went on active duty or training, to all outward appearance civilians.
Public interest in the uniform, as well as the name and all other matters
concerning the Women's Reserve, was keen. Perhaps mindful of the blue and red
of the Marine dress uniform, one woman sent in to Marine Corps Headquarters a
picture of a blue and red suit ensemble appearing in the current issue of a
high-styled fashion magazine, recommending its adoption and commenting
23
that the hat would "probably have to be modified" for the Marine Corps'
purposes.<91> Another unsolicited offer of help came from an ex-Marine of
World War I who volunteered his old dress blue cape and wrote: "I am wondering
if the uniform of the new Women's Reserve of the Marine Corps will include the
blue cape....I happen to have found two of these among my effects a few days
ago....I will be glad to donate them to the new organization if you can use
them."<92> Customarily, Marine Corps Headquarters sent individual replies to
such letters, thanking the writers for their interest in the Marine Corps and
offer of help, but advising that forest green uniform had already been decided
upon for the women's use.
Essentially the regulation Marine uniform was adopted. Its feminine
counterpart was identical in color with that of the men, but of a slightly
lighter-weight serge or covert fabric, although enthusiasts at the time not
infrequently proclaimed that the girls' uniforms were "cut from the identical
forest green cloth as the men's."<93>
In accordance with provisions of the law which had authorized the Women's
Reserve, a uniform allowance and gratuity of $250 was made for officers and
$200 for enlisted. It was expected that uniforms would be purchased, fitted,
and paid for during the period of indoctrination. From her uniform allowance,
a Woman Marine purchased two winter uniforms, hats shoes, summer outfits, a
handbag, a wool-lined raincoat (at $41 the most expensive item in her
wardrobe), and various other articles.<94>
Official Issue
The winter uniform consisted of a forest-green, tailored suit with a
semifitted, unbelted, three-button jacket with roll collar and notched lapels,
worn with a plain matching six-gored skirt that extended approximately to the
bottom of the knee cap. The jacket had four pockets, and the traditional
Marine pointed-overlay cuff detail finished the sleeve. Dull-finished bronze
Marine ornaments were worn on the collar, and jacket buttons were of the same
design and finish. A khaki shirt and tie, cordovan oxfords or pumps, seamed
beige hose, dark-brown gloves, and a dark-brown shoulder bag were worn. The
visored, bell-crowned cap had a large dull-bronze finished Marine Corps
ornament in front and was trimmed with a scarlet cap cord. This cord was a
striking difference of the women's uniform and replaced the brown chin strap
of the men's dress cap. A matching scarlet wool muffler was worn with the
trenchcoat or overcoat. Officers wore their rank insignia on the shoulder
straps of the jacket and on the shirt collar. They also had the option of
white shirts and dark green
24
ties for dress wear. Enlisted personnel wore their chevrons in the manner of
male Marines. In most other respects, the uniforms worn by officers and
enlisted women were quite similar.<95>
Rather than the traditional military khaki with close-fitting collar and
necktie worn by male Marines as well as the women in World War I, the summer
work uniform designed for the women in World War II was a tailored two-piece
dress, initially of green and white striped plisse crepe, and shortly
thereafter of similarly striped seersucker. On the principle that "coolness
makes for efficiency," it had an open V-neck, short sleeves, and four patch
pockets. Captain Lentz was the one who first suggested breaking with the
tradition of summer khaki and the use of seersucker uniforms because of the
ease with which they could be laundered, since it was recognized that at many
places members of the Women's Reserve would be entirely dependent on
themselves for the proper laundering and smart appearance of their
uniforms.<96> The single-breasted jacket of this dress had five large white
buttons down the front; small white buttons closed the pointed flaps of the
four pockets. Commissioned rank was indicated by metal insignia-on the
shoulder straps and noncommissioned rank by green chevrons. Officers at first
wore their insignia right on the straps, but it was soon realized that on the
striped material the insignia was not easily seen. Therefore, a slightly
stiffened solid green shoulder board in the shape of the strap was devised.
Dull-finished bronze Marine Corps ornaments were worn on the collar. At
first, the summer headgear was a round cap with a snap brim, but this was soon
replaced by a cap of the same style as that of the winter uniform, but of a
light spruce-green cotton twill. This cap had a white cap cord and the same
large globe-and-anchor ornament. Later, a light-green, garrison-style cap
with white piping was authorized. The same dark-brown oxfords or pumps used
with the winter service were worn. For summer wear the handbag had a matching
spruce-green cover, easily removable to launder. Gloves were white. All
items of the summer uniform were designed so they would be washable and easy
to keep in good repair.<97>
Summer dress uniform was a two-piece sparkling white cotton, in the same
styling as the seersucker uniform, but worn with gold buttons and insignia,
white pumps and gloves, and the same green-visored cap and matching cover for
the handbag.<98>
Uniform regulations were issued and modified as required.<99> The proper
lipstick hue was prescribed as a clear red, or close to the trade shade known
as "Montezuma Red" which matched the winter cap cord and muffler and was
"neatly and thinly applied."<100> Girdles were a must, no matter how trim or
willowy
25
the figure. Slips were to be worn and were not to show below the skirt. Hair
might touch but not cover the collar. Fingernail polish was an option, but if
worn had to match the lipstick. And, unlike their more casual civilian
sisters, hats and gloves were required at all times when outdoors.<101>
In addition to regular summer and winter uniforms, certain specialized
types of uniforms were issued such as bibbed overalls for work clothes. An
attempt was made to keep all uniforms attractively-styled but simple, so as to
keep within the monetary uniform allowance and make them easy to keep cleaned,
pressed, and sharp looking.<102>
Those Dress Whites!
Summer dress uniforms easily won hands-down honors from both Marines and
non-Marines as the most attractive and feminine uniform of any women's
service. They were an immediate hit. When the Third War Loan Drive got
underway on 9 September 1943, Women Marines attired in the dress whites nearly
stole the show in Philadelphia. "The snappy-looking members of the MCWR--a
score of them--were parts of the official escort for the dozen or more
Hollywood stars," wrote one observer. "All the stars highly complimented the
uniforms of the Women's Reserve...Dick Powell said he thought they were the
nicest he had seen." Perhaps the best accolade of all came from the policeman
who commented simply: "I hear from all sides that the Women Marines outshone
the stars."<103>
Special Uniform Class and Uniform Distribution
From September through December 1943, 13 women officers were attached to
Headquarters for intensive training in the various phases of tailoring,
alternations, clothing construction, and fitting. Upon completion of a
six-week course, they were assigned to uniform shops being operated by Post
Exchanges at major Marine Corps posts throughout the country. Two phases of
training were covered in the course: materials, design, construction,
specifications, and uniform regulations; and administration and successful
operation of a uniform shop, including the set-up of a Post Exchange stock
control system. Unlike some of their sister services, the Women Marines'
clothing was not government issue. Regulation clothing and all items of
uniform were purchased by the Post Exchange, and in turn bought by the women,
using the allowance given them by the government. At the Post Exchange
Uniform Shop, Women Marines especially trained for the job fitted the
clothing.
26
Originally, in 1943, Marine Corps Women's Reserve uniforms had been
manufactured by various firms and sold to retail outlets. These stores then
sold the uniforms to the individual women, a system of supply and distribution
which had been used by the WAVES and adopted by the Women Marines. However,
since it seemed to have a number of inherent difficulties, including chronic
shortage of popular sizes, a change was made on 16 February 1944, when
responsibility for distribution of the women's clothing was placed in the
Quartermaster Department which supplied the Post Exchange shops throughout the
country for the remainder of the war.<104>
Uniform Board and Regulations
On 11 June 1943, a Uniform Unit was established as part of the Women's
Reserve Section at Marine Corps Headquarters. Its purpose was to provide for
the complete uniforming of the individual at the time of assignment to active
duty. A Uniform Board which suggested articles of clothing and made
recommendations to the Commandant was established on 17 June. A complete list
of uniform regulations, including explanatory sketches, was issued in July
1943, after having been approved by the Uniform Board, the Commandant, and the
Secretary of the Navy. These regulations were later modified and reissued in
April 1945.<105>
On 16 June 1944, the Uniform Unit of the Women's Reserve Section was
transferred to the Supply Division, Quartermaster Department. A number of
steps were taken to make the entire system of supply and distribution of
uniforms more expeditious. In October, this division took over the writing and
approval of all specifications for Women's Reserve clothing. This job had
previously been done by the Philadelphia Depot of Supplies which had based
many of its supply projections on its past experience of working with men's
clothing, a system which not too surprisingly proved inadequate, as certain
characteristics of women's clothing were entirely unrelated to men's.<106>
Although the Woman Marine uniform itself was well-accepted and a definite
success, many of the administrative procedures concerning its design,
specifications, accurate sizing, inspection, and distribution remained a
changing but constant problem. As the Director herself once commented:
"...the supply of MCWR clothing was one of the few problems to which a
satisfactory solution had not been found at the time that demobilization
began."<107>
27
V. Jobs and Job Assignments
All Marine Corps training for the women, whether basic or specialist, was
tough and thorough. The objective was to indoctrinate a Woman Marine so
completely in her field or specialty that she could handle any contingency
that might develop in the day-to-day job situation. Skill and precision were
mandatory, whether in transcribing shorthand notes or packing parachutes. As
with the battlefield Marines, the women learned that mistakes could cost
lives.
Women Marines in World War II had many advantages over their predecessors
in World War I. One of the biggest of these was in job assignments and
increased job responsibility. The women Marines of 1918 (or, as they were
called in the parlance of the day, "Marinettes") <108> numbered 305 and had
primarily clerical duties--stenography, typing, bookkeeping, and messenger
chores.<109>
By contrast a much wider range of jobs were available to USMCR women in
the Second World War. This included such diverse tasks as being a radio
operator, photographer, parachute rigger, motor transport driver, aerial
gunnery instructor, cook and baker, quartermaster, Link trainer instructor,
control tower operator, motion picture technician, automotive mechanic,
teletype operator, cryptographer, laundry manager, and post exchange manager.
In addition, as the women's units were set up in posts throughout the country,
there were hundreds of "line" or company work assignments created which
compare roughly to personnel management jobs in civilian life, as well as the
inevitable stenographic and related desk jobs.
Early recruiting literature in 1943 had referred to "more than 30
different job assignments."<110> Actually, this turned out to be an extremely
modest estimate. Once on the job, the women proved themselves so versatile
that they were soon performing assignments previously considered strictly in
the masculine domain. They also took on, informally, other duties such as
swimming pool lifeguard on some posts and stations.<111> The total number of
different job classifications turned out to be more than 200. (See Appendix A
for complete list.)
Job Classification
A job classification system was established in March 1943 so that each
man Marine could be easily placed in the task she was suited to handle
following completion of her indoctrination course. At both the U. S. Naval
Training School in the Bronx and the U. S. Naval Reserve Midshipmen's School
in Northhampton, women Reservists were questioned as to professional
experience, education, hobbies, and linguistic ability. Tests determined
their special aptitudes.<112>
28
The classification system, paralleling that used for the men, was under
the direction of Captain Cornelia Williams, at Marine Corps Headquarters. She
held a Ph.D. degree in psychology from the University of Minnesota and had
wide experience as a college instructor and administrator in student personnel
work.<113> The Women's Reserve Section of the Detail Branch was responsible
for the classification and detail of all Women Reservists. The section's
classification work involved selection of tests, designing a qualification
card, supervising the selection and training of classification personnel, and
analyzing jobs and giving them appropriate specification serial numbers. The
Women's Reserve Section projected and planned the distribution of all Women
Marines in accordance with the current needs of the service and requested the
necessary orders to send them to the appropriate schools or duty stations.
This required analysis of billets, an analysis of available personnel, and the
matching of the two as well as possible.<114>
After the transfer of recruit training to Camp Lejeune in early July,
each new Marine was tested and interviewed during her first week of training.
Assignment to jobs and eligibility for the specialists schools was determined
by the classification section at the Women's Reserve Schools. Eventually,
classification specialists were assigned to all posts and stations to assist
in the assignment of women who reported for duty and to reclassify them when
necessary. Reassignment sometimes became necessary because the personnel were
misassigned in the first place or because the needs of the service had
changed.<115>
More than half of all Women Marines were assigned to office jobs where
they utilized their civilian experience. A statistical breakdown of the
17,672 women on duty at the end of the war shows they had primary military job
specialties in the following categories:
Clerical and sales 11,020 (or 62.4 percent>
General duty 1,648 ( 9.3 percent>
Mechanical 1,371 ( 7.7 percent>
Professional and managerial 1,342 ( 7.6 percent>
Semi-skilled jobs 1,305 ( 7.4 percent>
Agriculture and service 587 ( 3.3 percent>
Student 35 ( 0.2 percent>
Unskilled 14 ( 0.08 percent>
<116>
An analysis of military assignment in relation to civilian background
shows that:
(1) The total number of Women Marines assigned to clerical duties was
about the same as the percentage so employed in civilian life.
29
(2) Proportionately fewer women were utilized in "professional"
categories in the Marine Corps than came from professional jobs in civilian
life. Most of the discrepancies can be accounted for by the relatively large
number of civilian school teachers who enlisted in the Women's Reserve, in
contrast to the number of instructional jobs available.
(3) Proportionately more women were used in the Marine Corps in
mechanical jobs than came from these types of jobs as civilians--especially in
aviation.
(4) More women were used in the service category than came from this
category as civilians. Here again the discrepancy resulted from the fact that
all commissary jobs in the Marine Corps were classified as personal
service.<117>
Promotion
Promotion is always a difficult problem, and enlisted promotion in the
Women's Reserve was no exception. Several different plans were tried, found
not entirely satisfactory, and were amended. Eleven Letters of Instruction
were issued on the subject in two and a half years. The final system used for
line personnel which seemed to work best provided that 75 percent of the
combined strength of privates and privates first class could rank as privates
first class. A quota of promotions to the fourth and fifth pay grades was
allotted monthly to each post, and these promotions were made by the post
commander after tests were given and successful candidates determined.
Promotions to the first three pay grades were recommended by commanding
officers and effected by Marine Corps Headquarters as vacancies existed. In
the specialty schools top-ranking students were often graduated a full rating
ahead of the rest of the class.<118>
With officers, seniority was the chief determining factor in the
beginning. Later, it was decided that promotion should be made by selection,
and for specific billets, so it would be possible to have the rank where it
was most needed. The principle of bloc promotion from second to first
lieutenant was adopted and all Women's Reserve officers who served
satisfactorily in commissioned rank for at least 18 months were finally
assured one promotion.
"Spot" promotions were authorized in cases where a woman with specialized
skills was needed to fill a billet which by table of organization called for a
higher-ranking Marine. Such promotions became official only when the woman
later came up for regular promotion with contemporaries from her same training
class or like seniority, and was selected for promotion to the next higher
rank.<119>
30
Buildup
In May of 1943, as the first Hunter and Mount Holyoke classes were
graduated, Women Marines began reporting in all units to camps and bases, as
well as to Headquarters in Washington, where there were approximately 250
enlisted women and 15 officers by mid-May.
A little later, as the Marine raiders headlined the front pages with
their landing on New Georgia and the capture of Viru Harbor, the first two
Women Marines assigned to motor transport completed their specialist courses
at Camp Lejeune and climbed into military trucks.
July--as the new WR Schools complex began in full schedule at Camp
Lejeune--found the Women Marines there moving full force into Paymaster and
Quartermaster schools, well-aware that 9,000 miles away the Central Solomons
were being blasted by Marine fliers and that more men would be needed for the
island-hopping conquest of the enemy.
August found the Women Marines at Lakehurst, New Jersey, learning to fold
the silken safety of parachutes--and for them, the vital importance of the
rigger's work was underlined by the landing of Marine Corsairs on Munda
Airfield, a promise of air-battles to come.
September found three battalions of Women Marines training simultaneously
at Camp Lejeune's Recruit Depot. As the first Marine planes landed in
September on the newly-constructed airfield at Barakoma, Vella Lavella Island,
in the Solomons, 25 women skilled in the handling of the Link trainer began
instructing future Marine pilots at the air station at Edenton, North
Carolina.<120>
By the following month, the first Women Marines had reported for duty on
the West Coast--at Camp Pendleton and the air stations at Santa Barbara and El
Centro, California. At Cherry Point, where the women were already
established, the entire bus system was taken over by them. With the buses,
they inherited the responsibility of dispatching, maintenance, and repairs.
And at New River's "Tent City," combat Marines were surprised one morning when
a group of Women Marines electricians reported to wire an area of Dallas
huts.<121>
In November at San Diego and Parris Island, male teletype operators,
cashiers, stenographers, and file clerks left in large numbers for the front
lines as the women reported for duty. At the Marine Corps Air Station at El
Toro, California, the first 97 women paved the way for the thousands who
eventually reported there to work in offices, handle mail, drive
31
jeeps, repair aircraft engines, and instruct combat crewmen in aerial gunnery.
At the same time, at Quantico, Virginia, the first four women radio operators
reported for duty.<122>
Reported the Quantico Sentry in November 1943: "The women Marines have
landed. Quantico--the beehive of training in World War I, on Wednesday
received the first of the WR detachment. Over 11,000 green-clad Women Marines
(approximately 8,500 already on active duty) are training and working at 125
different types of jobs at 52 other Marine posts and stations."<123>
Other Women Marines, in training at the University of Wisconsin, at Miami
University in Oxford, Ohio and at Omaha, Nebraska were learning the
International Morse Code and the maintenance and operation of sending and
receiving equipment, in preparation for the eventual take over of
station-to-station communication at posts throughout the country.<124>
Shortly thereafter, in December 1943, the significance of air power was
re-emphasized to the women in forest green by the first Marine fighter sweep
on Rabaul. With approximately one-third of their total strength destined for
some phase of aviation, Women Marines later that month moved into the fields
of celestial navigation, studying mathematics and theory at Hollywood, Florida
and the operation and maintenance of the miniature bomber at Quonset, Rhode
Island. At the same time, control tower operators, trained at the Atlanta,
Georgia specialty school, were assigned to Marine flying fields, releasing
more men for the air units in the Pacific.<125>
Thus, by the end of their first year in service--13 February 1944--the
Women Marines were nearing their planned enlistment strength and were a
close-working unit on each camp, base, or air station. In quartermaster
departments, they were taking over not only the paperwork, but the actual
loading duty in stock-rooms. In other activities, they were aerial
photographers and darkroom technicians, welders and painters, telephone
operators, and aircraft and instrument mechanics.<126>
Watching the combat men ship out for battle zones, the Women Marines
worked steadily at their jobs and assumed new ones. June and July of 1944
marked the battles for Saipan, Tinian, and Guam---and the casualty lists
passed through the hands of the Women Marines stationed at Marine Corps
Headquarters. Billeted at Henderson Hall in Arlington, Virginia, they were
part of the over 2,000 on duty at Headquarters as stenographers, typists,
clerks, and messengers. Working in procurement, aviation, mail and files,
plans and policies, and other offices, they handled the clerical details of
muster rolls, decorations, statistics, payrolls, identifications, and other
activities attendant upon the tremendous task of administration.<127>
32
In September, the landings on Peleliu once more brought home to the women
the need for constant replacements and supplies in the Pacific. Cherry Point
graduated its first class of women skilled in PBJ (Mitchell bomber) repair,
and women radio operators began standing watch at the field's lighthouse
tower. At the same time, WR aviation machinists were graduating from the
Naval Air Technical Training School in Norman, Oklahoma, and reporting for
crew work at airfields. In the supply depots in San Francisco and
Philadelphia, women packed and repaired radio parts, sorted clothing, and
drove trucks.<128>
Beginning in December and though the first half of 1945, the
participation of the Women Marines in the great push to victory was made even
more complete when the passage of modified regulations permitted them to serve
overseas. Nearly a thousand Women Marines served in Hawaii, at the Pearl
Harbor Naval Base and Marine Corps Air Station in Ewa. Here they did much as
they had done in the States--moved into offices, workshops, and other
installations, freeing combat men for front-line duty or return Stateside for
well-earned furloughs. With the ending of hostilities and surrender of Japan,
nearly 20,000 Women Marines in jobs both in Hawaii and the States knew that
their contribution had indeed been a vital one.<129>
Job in Aviation
Before the war ended, nearly one-third of the Women Marines had served in
aviation at Marine air commands and bases. Under the special arrangement that
the Division of Aviation had within the Marine Corps whereby it trained,
assigned, and supervised its own personnel, this same policy was extended to
women. Upon completion of recruit training, they took classification tests
and were divided into two main groups: those assigned to aviation and those to
non-aviation, or general duty. In most cases the Division of Aviation then
made its own arrangements about specialty training.<130>
All personnel working in aviation--whether in the "glamour" technical
assignments such as Link trainer instructors and control tower operators or in
the purely administrative functions such as stenographers and stock
clerks--were classified as holding aviation jobs. Since so many aviation jobs
were being filled by women, it became essential to have at least one key
officer responsible for the varied liaison and training duties. A memorandum
in early 1943 cited the modest requirements needed by this woman: she should
have, preferably, both aviation and general business experience plus the
executive ability to work with the Division of Aviation in connection with
liaison, organization, procurement, and training. Also, since Marine
33
aviation traditionally is so closely linked with naval aviation, an
understanding of Navy Department organization, as well as that of the Marine
Corps, was also considered desirable. A main requirement was described simply
as the ability to "handle problems and get things done."<131> Two women were
selected for special duties in the Division of Aviation and approved for
appointment to the rank of captain, following completion of officers'
training. They were Marion B. Dryden and Katherine D. Lynch, both members of
the fifth officers' class, who were commissioned on 20 September 1943.<132>
Indication of how the women replaced the men in air ground jobs can be
seen from the record at Cherry Point. By August 1944 all the training in Link
instruction was handled by the Women Marines. They took almost complete
charge of the photography department and film library. Ninety percent of the
parachute packing, inspecting, and repairing was done by the women, and 80
percent of the landing-field control tower operations were being "manned" by
women.<133>
With assignment of large numbers of women to duty at Marine air stations,
a number of detachments were activated as Aviation Women's Reserve Squadrons.
The function of these units was to supply various technical and administrative
personnel needed by the male Marine operational training unit of the next
higher echelon. Aviation Women's Reserve Squadrons in operation at the end of
the war included: Number 1 at Mojave; Number 2 at Santa Barbara; Number 3 at
El Centro; Numbers 4 and 5 at Miramar; Numbers 6-10 at El Toro; Number 11 at
Parris-Island; Number 14 at Ewa, Hawaii; Numbers 15-20 at Cherry Point; and
Number 21 at Quantico.<134>
"Appropriateness" of Jobs
A four-fold classification of the "appropriateness" of jobs in respect to
innate female capabilities to perform the work in contrast to the men they
released was made, based on World War II evidence. These are the following
classifications and the conclusions which were reached.<135>
Class I: Jobs in which women are better, more efficient than men.
Example: All clerical jobs, especially those involving typing or requiring
fairly routine tasks but coupled with a high degree of accuracy in the work;
administrative jobs connected with organization and administration of the
Women's Reserve; and instructional jobs of all types.
Class II: Jobs in which women are as good as men, and replaced men on a
one-to-one basis. Examples: some clerical jobs in which men are especially
good, such as accounting;
34
some relatively unskilled service or clerical jobs, such as messengers or Post
Exchange clerks; some of the mechanical and skilled jobs, such as watch
repairman, fire control instrument repairman, tailor, sewing machine
operator--especially those jobs requiring a high degree of finger dexterity.
Class III: Jobs in which women are not as good as men, but can be used
effectively when need is great, such as wartime. Example: most of the jobs in
motor transport--men are better as motor mechanics and even as drivers when
the equipment is heavy and the job demands loading and unloading as well as
driving, as it often does; most of the "mechanical" and "skilled" jobs;
supervisory and administrative jobs, such as first-sergeant (except in WR
units) where maximum proficiency depends on years of experience in the Marine
Corps, and also some supervisory jobs where part of the personnel being
supervised is male; strenuous and physically tiring jobs, such as mess duty
where experience showed that more women had to be assigned to cover the same
amount of work because they could not endure the long hours and physical
strain without relief as well as men.
Class IV: Jobs in which women cannot or should not be used at all.
Example: jobs demanding excessive physical strength, such as driving
extremely heavy equipment, stock handling in warehouses, heavy lifting in mess
halls; jobs totally inappropriate, such as battle duty or jobs requiring that
personnel be engaged at particularly unfavorable hours, jobs protected by
special civil service regulations for civilians, such as librarians.
The Philosophy of Hard Work
The fundamental purpose of the Women's Reserve in World War II was to
train Women Marines to replace men in essential duties at Marine bases,
without loss of military efficiency. The Marine Corps had no place for
self-appointed glamour girls. Enlistees were told bluntly they must be ready
to learn many new things and to put up with a lot of hard work. Typical of
this straight-forward, realistic approach was a statement made by the Director
less than six months after the Women Marines had been aboard. In an official
memorandum she noted that women of the Marine Corps were now stationed all
over the United States, serving in all kinds of jobs, and true to traditions
of the Corps, "cheerfully assume whatever duty may be assigned to them, even
though it may be a job they do not particularly like. Our people as a whole
do just as the other members of the Marine Corps and take satisfaction in a
hard job well done."<136>
Admittedly some of the men had second thoughts about the real usefulness
of the women until they saw them in action and observed "dungareed WRs tear
down a Corsair engine, or slide
35
out, greased and grimed, from under a six-by-six truck, or handle a fouled-up
traffic pattern from a control tower with the same ease as they did a
typewriter."<137>
Not unexpectedly, morale was highest among those women who could see that
they had actually "freed a man to fight" or that their efforts were a direct
help to fighting Marines. Morale was correspondingly low where the women were
not kept sufficiently busy or where their jobs bore no visible relation to the
war effort--such as beauty operators. The greatest single morale factor among
members of the Women's Reserve was job satisfaction.<138>
And at the end, men who weren't too enthusiastic about admitting women to
"their" Marine Corps were not at all enthusiastic about seeing them go. As
one captain ruefully remarked: "You can't pick good clerks out of thin air.
The women have done remarkably well."<139>
VI. Administration and Policies
The original Plans and Policies study which had recommended the formation
of a Women's Reserve also suggested that it be placed for administrative
purposes in the Division of Reserve of the Adjutant and Inspector's
Department. This was a logical decision since the Division of Reserve was
responsible for the procurement of all Marine Corps reserve personnel. A
newly created unit, called the Women's Reserve Section, was attached to the
Division of Reserve to handle matters dealing with administration of the
Women's Reserve, e.g., training, uniforming, and regulations. Suitable
personnel were placed in the Women's Reserve Section to handle the new
activity. In addition, a senior woman officer was assigned to major
activities at Marine Corps Headquarters which handled matters affecting
women--such as Personnel, Administrative Division, Public Information, Plans
and Policies, and Supply.<140>
It was believed that women could be most useful to the Marine Corps if
they were regarded for purposes of organization much like "extra" Marines.
Thus, all administrative action relating to them was taken through the
regularly established divisions which were already performing such functions
for the men, and the Women's Reserve was never organized as a separate
administrative unit.<141>
Initially, the Director, MCWR, was charged with the "...procurement,
instruction, training, discipline, organization, administration and
mobilization of the Women's Reserve for the duration of the war and six months
thereafter."<142> From 13 February to 29 October 1943, she was attached to
the Women's Reserve Section for "purposes of instruction" as she learned
36
her way around military procedures. On the latter date she was transferred as
a Special Assistant to the Director of Personnel, with her chief duty being
that of advising him on policy matters concerning the Women's Reserve.
Although the Director had considerable influence in developing policies and
procedures for the new Women's Reserve, actually she never took any
independent action regarding the administrative handling of the Reserve. She
made the recommendations to the Director of Personnel who, in turn, was
authorized to take appropriate action.<143>
Since the guiding philosophy was to treat the Women Marines, for
administrative purposes, much like additional Marines, it was logical that
those regulations governing the men which were appropriate and practical for
the women would also be adopted. Some administrative procedures and policies
were also adopted from the WAVES. This, too, was natural, since in the
beginning recruiting and training of the Women Marines had been conducted in
conjunction with that of the WAVES. Then, too, the Marine Corps Women's
Reserve benefited from the valuable experience of the other women's services
which was freely shared. The Canadian Women's Army Corps was also most
helpful. In fact, an officer of the regular Marine Corps, Lieutenant Colonel
John B. Hill, had paid an official visit to the CWAC and the other Canadian
women's services in January 1943, before the Marine Corps Women's Reserve was
formed, to learn first-hand about the curricula, personnel policies, and other
organizational details that might be helpful to the new American service.<144>
Cooperation with the Women's Services
Despite the fact that the women's services were competitive, in the sense
they were all eager to enlist well-qualified candidates, a high degree of
cooperation and good will existed between the directors themselves. The women
leaders of the three other services, and their highest ranks, were: Colonel
Oveta Culp Hobby, WAAC and WAC; Captain Mildred H. McAfee, WAVES; and Captain
Dorothy C. Stratton, SPARS.
A typical matter on which the four women's service leaders worked
together was drawing up a unified program of the recruiting, as well as
enlistment, of women from the war industries, civil service, or agriculture.
After the four directors had worked out an agreement which resolved their own
differences of viewpoint or emphasis, the recommendation was then submitted to
the Joint Army-Navy Personnel Board for final approval. The board, in turn,
issued the all-service policy which was then followed by the four women's
reserves.<145>
As a general policy, the enlistment of applicants already employed in any
of the war industries was discouraged. The case was referred to the local
office of the United States Employment Service which had to authorize a
release. In instances of civil service workers who sought enlistment in the
Marine Reserve, the policy adopted was that the woman had first to
37
secure a written release from the agency. An employee who was released
"without prejudice" on the part of her employer could apply to the Women's
Reserve under the same conditions as a non-Civil Service employee. On the
other hand, an employee whose resignation had been accepted "with prejudice"
and whose employer was reluctant to have her go, was ineligible for membership
in the armed services until 90 days had expired from the date of acceptance of
her resignation. Civil service employees who resigned to enlist in the
Marines were not returned to duty at their former place of employment, even if
they happened to be classified with a military job description identical to
their previous civilian occupation.<146>
Typical of the good feeling that existed among the women's services was
the Marine Corps' three-day Open House at Camp Lejeune held from 13-15 October
1943, after transfer there of all the women's training activities. Planned as
a method of information exchange between the women's services, the three-day
event included inspection of training facilities and methods as well as
observation of the performance of Women Marines on the job. Representatives
of the WACs, WAVES, and SPARS all attended as well as many high-ranking male
officers of the corresponding services.<147>
Policy about Assignment and Housing
From the beginning, the Marine Corps decided that Women Marines would be
assigned "only to posts where their services have been requested."<148> The
matter of proper housing facilities, in connection with assignment to duty,
was a major consideration. The early November 1942 Plans and Policies survey,
which had sought estimates on the number of women needed by different posts
had also requested information regarding the quarters available for their use.
Women were not to be assigned to posts lacking proper housing unless they can
be quartered with the WAVES or other satisfactory arrangements can be
made."<149>
It was also a policy that no less than two women would be assigned to a
station or sub-station, a move designed to "prevent loneliness and obviate
possible unfavorable comment."<150> No enlisted women were to be assigned to
a post unless a woman officer was present or in the near vicinity. As a
matter of practicality, it became the general rule not to assign a Woman
Marine officer to units of fewer than 25 women. The obvious exception, of
course, was in assignment to procurement offices in large cities. The
officer-to-enlisted ratio was projected at 5.7 percent.<151>
Upon completion of their training, women were assigned to duty on posts
and stations where they were under the authority of the commanding officer of
their unit, who in turn reported to the commanding officer of the post. In
respect to their
38
quarters, mess facilities, and general administration the Women Marines were
usually a relatively autonomous unit. Women Marines living on the regular
posts had their own barracks area which they maintained themselves. In cases
where MCWR personnel were stationed in cities, the question arose whether to
obtain barracks for them or put them on subsistence, a monetary allowance to
compensate for food and living costs. Where only a few were on duty, such as
the procurement stations, the women were naturally put on subsistence. In
Washington, D. C., where as many as 2,400 Women Marines were on duty,
Henderson Hall was build and operated as an independent post. The health,
feeding, military attitude, and discipline of the Women Reservists were all
improved when barracks were available for them. This was due to the fact that
when living together as a military unit, the women felt more like Marines than
they did when they lived scattered throughout a duty area, and they also
enjoyed more of a sense of comradeship with one another.<152>
In many cases, the work of the women was supervised by male officers, but
every-day matters of discipline and command questions were left to the Women's
Reserve officer. Despite the unique theoretical concept of dual supervision,
in practice it usually worked well. In the few instances of serious
disciplinary problems, male commanding officers usually sought the advice of
the senior Women's Reserve officer on their posts before handling the
matter.<153>
Assistants for the Women's Reserve
In the fall of 1943, the buildup of the Women's Reserve witnessed the
assignment of thousands of women to far-flung posts throughout the country.
It became imperative to have some type of regular reporting system so that
Marine Corps Headquarters would know immediately of all pertinent matters
beyond those which were vital enough to be committed to official
correspondence, those learned first-hand by the Director's field visits, or
those heard informally through the military's oldest information media, the
grapevine.
Accordingly, the senior woman officer at stations where Women Marines
were serving was designated as an "Assistant for the Women's Reserve."<154>
She was responsible for keeping in close touch with the Director and advising
her on all matters of welfare, health, jobs, training, housing, recreation,
and discipline. The Assistant for Women's Reserve activities was likewise
responsible for keeping the post commanding officer informed on anything that
pertained to the women under his jurisdiction. The procedure of a monthly
written report was instituted. This was sent every month by the post
Assistant for the Women's Reserve to Marine Corps Headquarters with a copy to
the post commanding officer. It contained information on all aspects of the
women's jobs and well-being as well as "full remarks concerning items of
special interest at the station."<155> These monthly reports supplemented
personal
39
visits of the Director, who made it a practice to spend a quarter of her time
away from her Washington desk to see for herself how the various units of the
Women's Reserve were operating throughout the country.<156>
Policy about Women's Authority
The authority of the women officers was exercised "over women of the
Reserve only" and was "limited to the administration of the Women's
Reserve."<157> In everyday practice it had been determined that the
"relationship of women officers or noncommissioned officers to enlisted men in
the administration of their work is similar to that of a civilian teacher in a
military school. While the woman officer may give instructions in connection
with the work, matters of discipline should be referred to the man's
commanding officer."<158>
Although the phrase "matters of discipline" was also interpreted
informally as "matters of job performance," the proper scope of the authority
of women officers when they were assigned to duties involving supervision over
male personnel continued to cause some uncertainty. Some months later the
Commandant felt it necessary to issue further clarification.
"It appears that the services of officers and non-commissioned officers
of the Marine Corps Women's Reserve are not being utilized to the fullest
extent due to some doubt as to the scope of their authority," he observed in
March 1944. This matter has been considered by the Navy Department he
continued, and "it is concluded that it is entirely proper for a woman officer
to be assigned to duty subordinate to a commanding officer and her directions
and orders in the proper performance of such duty are the acts of the officer
in command, even though such orders are directed to male personnel."<159>
Thus, within discretion of individual male commanding officers, the door was
opened for Women Marine officers to be detailed to duties such as adjutant,
assistant adjutant, personnel officer, or mess officer "where the directions
and orders necessary in the performance of such duties" were "considered as
emanating from the commanding officer."<160>
Changing Policy on Marriage
Originally, when recruiting opened--in February 1943, a Woman Marine
could be either single or married, so long as her children were not under 18
and she was not married to a Marine. This regulation had been issued by the
Secretary of Navy and applied equally to prospective WAVES, SPARS, and
Marines, none of whom could be enlisted or appointed if their husbands were in
the same service. Furthermore, a member of the Naval Reserve "could not while
in service marry an officer or enlisted man in the same service."<161>
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Early in March 1943, however, the Secretary of the Navy approved a
modification of these existing rules which allowed a member of the Naval
Reserve to marry after she entered the service. Single women merely had to
execute an agreement not to marry "during the period of their indoctrination
or training."<162> Naturally the question arose as to what was meant
precisely by the qualifying phraseology. Here the Marine Corps developed a
rather generous attitude, decreeing that a woman's basic training (either boot
or candidates' school) constituted her "period of indoctrination or training"
rather than her entire period of training which often included an additional
month or so at a specialist school. The distinction was made because
indoctrination lasted for only six weeks during which the women were "learning
the principles of military life" and the fact that obligations assumed
thereafter by the women "must be secondary to their obligation to the Marine
Corps."<163> On the other hand, specialist schools often lasted as long as
four months and it was felt that "at the rate that men in the military service
are now being sent overseas, this delay would often mean that the couple could
not get married at all."<164>
The policy about marriage was modified again in late 1943 when wives of
Marines "below the rank of second lieutenant" were allowed to enlist.
Originally, the Marine Corps had not concurred with the WAVES in the
preliminary discussion that led to this decision, and thus added the following
warning when the change was effected: Each wife shall be made to understand
that the probability of being stationed with her husband is very slight, and
that consideration cannot be given to personal desires in the matter."<165>
On balance, the record shows the Marine Corps tried to steer a reasonable,
realistic course between outright forbidding of service marriages, which might
simply aggravate other problems, and being too lenient about widespread
marriage which might, in turn, easily work out not to be in the best interests
of the service itself.
Discipline and Morale
For the most part, discipline was administered according to the rules
already established for the men of the Marine Corps. Women, however, could
not be put in brigs or prisons, but were confined to quarters. A Women's
Reserve officer in the discipline division reviewed all disciplinary cases and
consulted the Director for further recommendations. Within the first year and
a half, nearly 90 percent of the women were organized into battalions and
squadrons, under command of their own women officers. At this time, the
commanding officers were given the authority to convene deck and summary
courts martial. Women officers were assigned to courts which tried members of
the Women's Reserve. Punishment included confinement to quarters, loss of
pay, reduction in rank, extra police duties,
41
and, in extreme cases, dishonorable or bad conduct discharge. Pregnancy was
considered a medical rather than disciplinary case.<166>
Much thought and effort were given to trying to maintain morale at a high
level so that disciplinary action would not be necessary. Recreation and
educational services were considered very important in this respect. The
necessity of discipline and high standards in every aspect of behavior and
work was stressed from the time a recruit set foot in camp. The Women's
Reserve subscribed to the philosophy that a "slack ship" is not a happy ship,
let alone an efficient one, and directed its personnel and regulations
accordingly. It was found entirely possible to maintain high standards in an
organization of women and still be humane and understanding in dealing with
them.<167>
Officers were thoroughly indoctrinated with the principle that they must
be readily available to their enlisted women for "informal personal counsel
and advice on matters other than military."<168> Many officers set aside a
regular time, often from 1630 to 1700 daily, or at least several times weekly,
so that any woman could get private counsel. This tended to keep morale high
and reduce problems of adjustment to military life which otherwise might
result in disciplinary troubles. The importance of keeping personnel
well-informed was also stressed. The guiding philosophy expressed by Colonel
Streeter was that "the most able commanders, be they men or women, are those
who take the best care of their people and who keep them out of trouble by
anticipating the problems that may confront them."<169>
VII. People in the Program
For decades the Marine Corps has prided itself on the colorful and
unusual personalities it seems to attract to its ranks. This situation held
true for the women in World War II, many of whom seemed to have a special
sense of derring-do and esprit.
The slogan "Once a Marine, always a Marine" was true for two women who
had served as Marines during World War I and again reentered. One of these
was Mrs. Martrese Thek Ferguson, a member of the first candidates' class to
train at Mount Holyoke College in May 1943. Not only was Mrs. Ferguson a
member of the class, but she led it, graduating in the number one spot and
being commissioned a first lieutenant. She could boast too, not only of
Victory and Good Conduct medals from World War I but of two service sons, one
of whom was a Marine. She later rose to the rank of lieutenant colonel and
was commanding officer in charge of more than 2,000 women at Henderson
Hall.<170>
42
Another woman who wore the Marine green uniform in both wars was Mrs.
Lillian O'Malley Daly. One of the eight women who came to the Corps directly
from civilian life in January and February 1943, she was immediately assigned
to Camp Pendleton, California, where she served as the West Coast liaison
officer. Captain Daly was stationed there at the time Major Streeter and her
public relations assistant, First Lieutenant E. Louise Stewart, made their
first nationwide recruiting trip in February and March 1943. It was at Camp
Pendleton and nearby Camp Elliott that these three new women officers tried
their skill at the rifle range, jumped from the parachute tower, flew with
paratroopers making their first jump, and rode in tanks.<171>
Another officer who shared a similar background was Major Helen G.
O'Neill, who was also one of the first Women Marines in World War II. She had
been a Chief Yeoman in the Navy during World, War I. She had the distinction
of being a 25-year civilian employee of the Navy Department. Prior to her
commissioning in the Women's Reserve she had served as secretary to four
Assistant Secretaries of the Navy. She had organized the National Yeoman F, a
group of ex-servicewomen of the U. S. Naval Reserve from World War I and had
served as one of its top officers. Major O'Neill was also a linguist who had
studied French, Spanish, and Latin, and was later to concentrate on
Russian.<172>
Captain Frances W. Pepper was another member of the Marine Corps Women's
Reserve with an unusual background. Graduating as top-ranking member of the
third candidates' class in June 1943, she was appointed as a captain, the
first woman to receive this rank from any class of aspiring officers. Her
service to the Marine Corps dated from 1923, when she joined the Adjutant and
Inspector Department of Headquarters. Her work there dealt with appointments,
retirement, discharge, and promotion of all commissioned and warrant officers
on active duty in the Marine Corps and Marine Corps Reserve. Captain Pepper
held a Bachelor of Law degree, was admitted to the District of Columbia Bar in
1931, and later did post-graduate work in the field of international law.
During World War 1, she served with the Young Women's Christian Association at
General Pershing's Headquarters in France.<173>
As a civilian in World War I, Major Helen N. Crean won a Croix de Guerre'
for heroism under fire. She organized a canteen for the Fifth Regiment of
Marines at Naix-au-Forge and the Verdun sector and, working though the
hospitals, secured information on the wounded and missing. Later she served
at the Red Cross dressing station at Glorieux, France, when it was badly
bombed and machine gunned--and her fearlessness won her the French medal. In
World War II, she was commanding officer of the Women's Reserve unit at the
Marine Corps Air Station, Santa Barbara, California, and later at the air
station in Ewa, Hawaii.<174>
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A woman reservist with an international background was Charlotte Day
Gower, named director of training for the Women's Reserve. Formerly Dean of
Women at Lingnan University, in Hong Kong, China, she had been there when the
Japanese assault began in that city and had organized first aid stations and
helped in rescue work. A prisoner in a Japanese internment camp for five
months, Major Gower had taught Chinese to fellow inmates and was later
repatriated in an exchange of prisoners.
Trapped in a similar set of circumstances was Staff Sergeant Mary
Virginia Herst, of Argonia, Kansas. She was a home economics teacher in
Bangkok, Thailand when the Japanese attacked and spent nine months in a prison
camp before being repatriated. She was later attached to the Marine Corps Air
Station, El Toro, California.
The Pacific Theather of Operations was also more than a headline to
Marine Private First Class Peggy Urzendowski. Having spent most of her life
in Singapore, Hong Kong, and the Philippines, she was on Corregidor during two
fierce bombing raids before being evacuated on a troop ship enroute to New
Zealand. From there she was sent to Australia, then Hawaii, and finally the
United States--where she quickly enlisted in the Women's Reserve add was
assigned to duty at the Marine Corps Base, San Diego, California.<175>
The Women's Reserve Band
If the Women's Reserve listed some unusual personalities in its midst, an
unusual and famed institution that came into being during the war years was
the Marine Corps Women's Reserve Band. Organized at Camp Lejeune with an
initial allowance of 43 women, it was formed with the high-spirited goal of
becoming "the most outstanding female band of the country."<176>
To secure the best possible musical talent, the Marine Corps wrote
letters to more than a dozen prominent and well-established music schools and
colleges, acquainting them with the band and asking them to recommend possible
candidates. As a result many women applied for the band before enlistment and
joined the service with the express purpose of becoming a member of the band.
Women already enrolled in the Reserve also had an opportunity to try out for
the band and, if sufficiently talented, to be accepted. All prospects were
screened and severely auditioned before being selected as members. The band
was organized in November 1943 by Captain William F. H. Santelmann, and was
trained by musicians of the U. S. Marine Band. Its director was Master
Sergeant Charlotte Plummer, who prior to her enlistment had been director of
music in the Portland, Oregon public school system and a member of the city's
municipal band.<177>